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  "text": "Passage 1:\nCamp Casey, South Korea\nCamp Casey (Korean: 캠프 케이시) is a U.S. military base in Dongducheon (also sometimes spelled Tongduchŏn or TDC), South Korea, 40 miles (64 km) north of Seoul, South Korea. Camp Casey was named in 1952 after Major Hugh Boyd Casey, who was killed in a plane crash near the camp site during the Korean War. Camp Casey is one of several U.S. Army bases in South Korea near the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). Camp Casey, Camp Hovey, and neighboring Camp Castle and Camp Mobile hold the main armor, 7th Division of a bridging engineer company as well, and mechanized infantry elements of the 2nd Infantry Division (United States) in South Korea. Camp Castle has been largely abandoned, with only a warehouse remaining. Camp Mobile was severely damaged during a flood in July 2011, and has been abandoned except for an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) company. Camp Casey spans 3,500 acres (14 km2) and is occupied by 6,300 military personnel and 2,500 civilians. There are plans for the relocation of most of the 2nd Infantry Division to Camp Humphreys which are underway with the latest estimate for completion being 2022. The Field Artillery Battalion remains for now at Camp Casey, while Camp Hovey is to be closed.Camp Casey was home to several of the main combat units of the Second Infantry Division. Among them were the Second Battalion of the 9th Infantry Regiment. the First Battalion of the 72nd Armored Regiment (Crusaders), and the 210th Field Artillery Brigade. The 70th Brigade Support Battalion is currently located on Camp Casey, providing support to the line battalions of the brigade as well as depot and medical support to everyone stationed in the Camp Casey area. Alternating Brigades of the 1st Cavalry Division (United States) are scheduled to be at Camp Casey on 9-month rotations until facilities are ready at Camp Humphreys in 2022.\n\nFacilities\nChapels\nCommissary\nLaw Enforcement Centers:\nProvost Marshal's Office - 2nd Infantry Division Provost Marshal and 55th Military Police CO\nHospitals available:\nDental Clinic\nHealth Clinic\nMWR facilities\nAirline Ticket Office\nRecreation Center\nSuper Day-rooms\nLibrary\nInternet Cafe\nMovie Theatre (with 3D capability) - also serves as Conference Center\nGolf Course\nBowling Centers (one at Casey; one at Hovey)\nIndoor (Hovey) and Outdoor (Casey) Swimming Pools\nOutdoor Tennis / Basketball\nSoftball / Baseball Field\nArts & Crafts Center\n2 recently remodeled Gymnasiums\nThe Officer and NCO/Enlisted clubs are no more. They are now the Gateway Club (Casey), Warriors Club (Casey), and Iron Triangle Club (Hovey), and they are open to all military personnel.\nAuto Car Care Center\nUSO\nAAFES facilities available:\nPost Exchange\nSmall Post Exchange Annex\nLGU PLUS - Mobile, Internet, CATV (both Casey and Hovey)\nStarbucks Coffee\nBurger King\nPopeyes Chicken\nAnthony's Pizza\nCharley's Steakery\nBaskin Robbins\nSmoothie King\nPanda Kitchen Chinese Fusion (Hovey)\nKrispy Kreme Donuts (Hovey)\nRobin Hood Sandwiches\nTailor Shop\nShoppette\nClass VI Store\nPizza Delivery\nFilling Station\nBarber / Beauty Salon\nGNC\nDepartment of Defense Dependents Schools - a K-8 School which opened on August 30, 2010; scheduled for closure in June 2016\nChild and Youth School Services (CYSS) - a daycare for children under 6 years old and over; scheduled for closure in 2016\n\nSee also\nList of United States Army installations in South Korea\nPassage 2:\nDenis Vetchinov\nDenis Vasiliyevich Vetchinov (Russian: Денис Васильевич Ветчинов; 28 June 1976 – 9 August 2008) was a Russian Ground Forces major killed in action during the 2008 South Ossetia war and posthumously awarded Russia's highest military award, Hero of the Russian Federation, for his role in the conflict. In film August Eighth Vetchinov became a prototype of captain Ilya played by Khasan Baroyev.\n\nBiography\nBorn 23 June 1976 in Stepnogorsk (now Kazakhstan), he graduated from the Omsk Officers' Academy in 1999. He participated in the Second Chechen War.\n\nDeath\n\nOn 9 August 2008, the second day of Russian involvement in the Battle of Tskhinvali, a column of Russian vehicles with a few journalists and 58th Army commander Anatoly Khrulyov onboard was ambushed by Georgian special forces in the outskirts of Tskhinvali. Khrulyov was wounded in the ensuing firefight. Allegedly Vetchinov, armed with a trophy Georgian machine gun, organised defence but was wounded in both legs. He continued firing at the enemy and killed a Georgian soldier. Vetchinov kept covering fire until he was hit in the head by Georgian fire. He died on the way to hospital. On 15 August Denis Vetchinov was posthumously awarded the Hero of the Russian Federation golden star \"for courage and heroism while fulfilling his duty in the North Caucasus region\". He is survived by his wife and little daughter.\nPassage 3:\n3rd Marine Division (United States)\nThe 3rd Marine Division is a division of the United States Marine Corps based at Camp Courtney, Marine Corps Base Camp Smedley D. Butler in Okinawa, Japan.  It is one of three active duty infantry divisions in the Marine Corps and together with the 1st Marine Aircraft Wing (1stMAW) and the 3rd Marine Logistics Group (3rd MLG) forms the III Marine Expeditionary Force (III MEF).  The division was first formed during World War II and saw four years of continuous combat in the Vietnam War. Today, elements of the 3rd Marine Division are continuously forward deployed and forward postured to carry out the US Government's mission of a Free and Open Indo-Pacific in conjunction with its sister services.\n\nSubordinate units\nHeadquarters Battalion\n 3rd Marine Littoral Regiment\n 4th Marine Regiment (Infantry)\n 12th Marine Regiment (Artillery)\n 3rd Reconnaissance Battalion\n Jungle Warfare Training Center, Okinawa (Transitioning to TECOM)\n\nHistory\nWorld War II\nThe 3rd Marine Division was officially activated on September 16, 1942 at Camp Elliott, San Diego, California. Most of the original members of the division were drawn from the cadre staff of the 2nd Marine Division.  The division was initially built around the 9th Marine Regiment, commanded by Colonel Lemuel C. Shepherd, Jr. who later became the 20th Commandant of the Marine Corps. Major General Charles D. Barrett was the first commanding general of the division.\nThe division deployed into Auckland, New Zealand, between January and March 1943.  In June of that year, it moved onto Guadalcanal for additional training, stopping first at Efate, New Hebrides for rehearsals (16-20 October 1943) and Santo, New Hebrides (21-29 October 1943) for shipboard-staging. 1 November 1943 saw the division land as part of the Battle of Bougainville and fight on the island until their last unit to arrive, the 21st Marine Regiment, embarked on 9 January 1944. During the course of the battle the division had about 400 Marines killed.The division returned to Guadalcanal in January 1944 to rest, refit, and retrain. The next operation in which the division took part was the Battle of Guam. From 21 July 1944 until the last day of organized fighting on 10 August, the division fought through the jungles on the island of Guam. During these 21 days of fighting, the division captured over 60 square miles (160 km2) of territory and killed over 5,000 enemy soldiers.  The next two months saw continuous mopping up operations in which the Marines continued to engage leftover Japanese forces. At the end of the battle the division had sustained 677 Marines killed, 3,626 wounded, and nine missing.The division remained on the island of Guam for training, until it embarked as part of the landing force for the Battle of Iwo Jima. The 3rd Marine Division was initially in reserve for the battle. However, the division was committed one regiment at a time when the initial regiments that landed there needed to be relieved.\nThe 21st Marines came ashore on 21 February  followed by the 9th Marines, 12th Marine Regiment, 3rd Tank Battalion, on 24 February. The Marines of these two infantry regiments, supported by the artillery of the 12th Marine Regiment and tanks of the 3rd Tank Battalion, fought on Iwo Jima until the end of organized resistance on 16 March and the subsequent mopping up operations for the next month. All elements of the division were back on Guam by 17 April 1945. The fighting on Iwo Jima cost the 3rd Marine Division 1,131 killed in action and another 4,438 wounded.After the return to Guam, the division began preparing for the invasion of Japan. This invasion never took place since Japan surrendered on 15 August 1945. The 3rd Marine Division was decommissioned on December 28, 1945 at Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton, CA.During the war, the 3rd Marine Division had three Seabee Battalions assigned to it. The 25th Naval Construction Battalion (NCB) was posted to 19th Marines as the third battalion of the regiment. These landed on Bougainville, as did the 71st NCB which was assigned as the 3rd Division's shore party there.The 25th NCB also landed during the assault on Guam as the shore party to the 3rd Marine Regiment, after which the 19th Marines were deactivated, and the 25th NCB was reassigned.  The 62nd NCB was then posted TAD to the 3rd for Iwo Jima. They were in the reserve, but they became the lead battalion in getting airfield No. 1 operational, after of the many casualties taken by the primary assault Seabees, the 133rd NCB.\n\nKorean War\nThe division was reactivated on 7 January 1952 at Camp Pendleton, California, using the assets of the 3d Marine Brigade activated in June 1951.  Immediately after its activation and still in its organizational state, the division began intensive combat training, including new tactics and maneuvers based on lessons learned in the then-ongoing Korean War. During the remaining part of 1952 elements of the division participated in numerous exercises and training problems, including vertical envelopment (helicopter landing), airborne operations and attack, and defense against atomic weapons and missiles.In August 1953 the division arrived in Japan to support the 1st Marine Division in the defense of the Far Eastern area. In March 1956 the division moved to Okinawa and remained there in a readiness posture until 1965.\nThe 3rd Marine Division moved to Okinawa in June 1955 making an amphibious landing.\n\nVietnam War\nThe 3rd Battalion, 9th Marines, 9th Marine Expeditionary Brigade, were the first Marines to be sent to Vietnam in March 1965 to protect the Da Nang Air Base. On 6 May 1965, the 3rd Marine Division opened the Marine Compound at the Da Nang Air Base, Vietnam.  By the end of 1965 the division had all its regiments (3rd Marines, 4th Marines and 9th Marines) on the ground.\nIn August 1966, the battalions of the 26th Marines (a 5th Marine Division unit) began arriving for combat duty in South Vietnam attached to the 3rd Marine Division. In October 1966, then commanding general Lewis W. Walt was ordered to establish strong points just south of the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). The 3rd Division moved its headquarters from Da Nang to Phu Bai in late 1966. At the same time the division was also building outposts along the southern half of the DMZ at Con Thien, Gio Linh, Cam Lộ and Đông Hà. The first major multi-regiment operations against the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) was Operation Hastings in July 1966. Operation Prairie followed in October. This area would come to be known as Leatherneck Square. In late 1967 the headquarters moved again from Phu Bai to Đông Hà in the Quang Tri Province and more outposts were opened. Camp Carroll, Rockpile, Ca Lu and Khe Sanh. The two main enemy divisions the  Marines fought were the 320th Division and the 324B Division.\nOn November 14, 1967, the 3rd Marine Division commander Major General Bruno Hochmuth was killed northwest of Huế in a helicopter crash. Some of the major operations in 1967 and early 1968 in this area were Operation Prairie III, Operation Prairie IV, Operation Hickory I, Operation Cimarron, Operation Buffalo, Operation Kingfisher and Operation Kentucky.\nNearly 8,000 PAVN were killed during this time period. The Marines suffered over 1400 killed and over 9,000 wounded. There were five Medals of Honor awarded and nearly 40 Navy Crosses given during this period of time. For extraordinary heroism in the Republic of Vietnam from 8 March 1965 to 15 September 1967, the division was awarded the Navy Presidential Unit Citation.During the 1968 Tet Offensive, the division conducted operations along the DMZ with a portion of the division fighting in the Battle of Huế. At the time, 3rd Marine Division intelligence estimated the combat strength of PAVN and Viet Cong (VC) forces in the DMZ area was 40,943 troops. The PAVN and VC stepped up their attacks by fire on every combat base in the division area of operations. This included daily attempts at interdiction of naval traffic on the Cua Viet River near Đông Hà. The division had to invest many of its assets to open the Cua Viet River to traffic. BLT 5/l, the Landing Force of SLF B, remained under the operational control (OPCON) of the division throughout February 1968.  BLT 3/l continued Operation Saline under operational control of the 1st Amphibian Tractor Battalion with the mission of clearing the area adjacent to the Cua Viet River between Cua Viet and Đông Hà. BLT 2nd Battalion, 4th Marines, the Landing Force of SLF A, remained under operational control of the division throughout the month. BLT 2/4 conducted operations in the Lancaster II and Kentucky areas.During the Vietnam War, the 3rd Marine Division suffered 6,869 men killed in action.The division departed South Vietnam in November 1969 with more than 20 Marines having received the Medal of Honor and moved to Camp Courtney, Okinawa, where it is presently located.\n\nSaudi Arabia\n3d Marine Regiment, 3d Marine Division was one of the first combat forces to deploy to Saudi Arabia in response to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait on 2 August 1990. The regiment, which became known as task Force Taro in honor of the state and people of Hawaii, became the first American unit to be engaged by Iraqi artillery, rocket and missile fire on 18 January 1991. Task Force Taro countered the Iraqi supporting attacks by conducting artillery raids into Kuwait as the first ground offensive actions of the war. Task force Taro was instrumental in the recapture of Khafji, was the first unit to advance into Kuwait, conducted the only helicopter borne assault of the war and secured the Marine Corp’s final objective of the war, Kuwait International Airport.\nFollowing the cease-fire on 28 February 1991, the regiment redeployed to Saudi Arabia and subsequently completed its strategic redeployment to Hawaii two months later.\n\nAfghanistan\nIn September 2008, 3d Marine Regiment was appointed to be the command element (CE) for a Special Purpose Marine Air Ground Task Force - Afghanistan (SPMAGTF-A).  In October 2008, SPMAGTF-A deployed to Kandahar, Afghanistan in support of combat operations in Regional Command South (RC-S) and Regional Command West as part of Operation Enduring Freedom and the GWOT. The Regiment returned to Helmand from late 2009 through May 2010, where it participated in Operation Moshtarak, also known as the Battle of Marjah.\n\nIraq\nFrom July 2004 through April 2005, Charlie Battery, 1st Battalion 12th Marines, deployed in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. They were attached to 1st Battalion 3rd Marines and deployed to Fallujah, Iraq participating in Operation Phantom Fury.\nPresent\n3d Marine Division continues to train to respond to contingencies within the Indo-Pacific Region. From March to May 2011, the division participated in humanitarian relief efforts during Operation Tomodachi, providing humanitarian aid and disaster relief in Honshu, Japan. Today, the 3rd Marine Division carries out a variety of tasks to include supporting the US Government policy in the Indo-Pacific region, supporting diplomatic activities, combat training, integrating with other US federal agencies and humanitarian assistance missions.\n\nUnit awards\nA unit citation or commendation is an award bestowed upon an organization for the action cited.  Members of the unit who participated in said actions are allowed to wear on their uniforms the appropriate ribbon of the awarded unit citation.  3d Marine Division has been awarded the following:\n\nSee also\nList of 3rd Marine Division Commanders\nList of United States Marine Corps divisions\nOrganization of the United States Marine Corps\n25th Naval Construction Battalion (19th Marine Regiment)\nPassage 4:\nCamp Courtney\nCamp Courtney (Japanese: キャンプ・コートニー, Hepburn: Kyampu Kōtonī) is a U.S. Marine Base located in Uruma City, Okinawa Prefecture, Japan. It is part of the larger Marine Corps Base Camp Smedley D. Butler and home to the III Marine Expeditionary Force, 3rd Marine Division, and 3d MEB Headquarters. It is named after Major Henry A. Courtney, Jr., who was killed in action in the Battle of Okinawa. Camp Courtney covers 1.339 square kilometres (0.517 sq mi) in the Konbu, Tengan, and Uken districts of Uruma.\n\nHistory\nCamp Courtney was opened as a U.S. Marine Base in January 1956, when select units of the 3rd Marine Division were transferred there from Camp McGill in Yokosuka, Kanagawa, Japan. Initially the base was called by its original name, Camp Tengan. The first Marine units occupied Quonset huts, Nissen huts and Butler buildings. Most of the huts were \"strong-backed\", which means they had concrete or concrete block ends, with cables strung over them at intervals whose ends were anchored in the ground in concrete, and had wooden hurricane shutters over the windows. This was to protect the buildings during the frequent typhoons that visit the Ryukyu Islands. The original units at Camp Tengan were Headquarters Battalion, the Division Band and a truck battalion. Division Headquarters was mainly in a sprawling, one-story building just inside the main gate. Some other units, such as Division Legal Office, were in separate buildings. There was an Army anti-aircraft battery located adjacent to the camp. That unit used to conduct live-fire exercises once a month. For some new arrivals, the unannounced firing sometimes caused momentary consternation.\nCamp Courtney houses many military families, has a movie theater, exchange, commissary, medical and dental clinics, post office, chapel and bank. Many Marines living on Camp McTureous are stationed on Camp Courtney.\nThe Michael Brown Okinawa assault incident occurred just outside the base on 2 November 2002.\n\nSee also\nPassage 5:\nBattle of Okinawa\nThe Battle of Okinawa (Japanese: 沖縄戦, Hepburn: Okinawa-sen), codenamed Operation Iceberg,: 17  was a battle of the Pacific War fought on the island of Okinawa by United States Army and United States Marine Corps forces against the Imperial Japanese Army. The initial invasion of Okinawa on 1 April 1945 was the largest amphibious assault in the Pacific Theater of World War II. The Kerama Islands surrounding Okinawa were preemptively captured on 26 March by the 77th Infantry Division. The 82-day battle lasted from 1 April until 22 June 1945. After a long campaign of island hopping, the Allies were planning to use Kadena Air Base on the large island of Okinawa as a base for Operation Downfall, the planned invasion of the Japanese home islands, 340 mi (550 km) away.\nThe United States created the Tenth Army, a cross-branch force consisting of the U.S. Army 7th, 27th, 77th and 96th Infantry Divisions with the 1st, 2nd, and 6th Marine Divisions, to fight on the island. The Tenth Army was unique in that it had its own Tactical Air Force (joint Army-Marine command) and was supported by combined naval and amphibious forces. Opposing the Allied forces on the ground was the Japanese Thirty-Second Army.\nThe battle has been referred to as the \"typhoon of steel\" in English, and kotetsu no ame (\"rain of steel\") or kotetsu no hageshi kaze (\"violent wind of steel\") in Japanese. The nicknames refer to the ferocity of the fighting, the intensity of Japanese kamikaze attacks and the sheer numbers of Allied ships and armored vehicles that assaulted the island. The battle was the bloodiest in the Pacific, with around 50,000 Allied and 84,166–117,000 Japanese casualties,: 473–474  including Okinawans conscripted into the Japanese Army. According to local authorities, at least 149,425 Okinawan people were killed, died by coerced suicide or went missingIn the naval operations surrounding the battle, both sides lost considerable numbers of ships and aircraft, including the Japanese battleship Yamato. After the battle, Okinawa provided a fleet anchorage, troop staging areas, and airfields in proximity to Japan for US forces, in preparation for a planned invasion of the Japanese home islands.\n\nOrder of battle\nAllied\nIn all, the US Army had over 103,000 soldiers (of these, 38,000+ were non-divisional artillery, combat support and HQ troops, with another 9,000 service troops),: 39  over 88,000 Marines and 18,000 Navy personnel (mostly Seabees and medical personnel).: 40  At the start of the Battle of Okinawa, the US Tenth Army had 182,821 personnel under its command.: 40  It was planned that Lieutenant General Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. would report to Vice Admiral Richmond K. Turner until the amphibious phase was completed, after which he would report directly to Admiral Raymond A. Spruance. Total aircraft in the US Navy, Marine and Army Air Force exceeded 3,000 over the course of the battle, including fighters, attack aircraft, scout planes, bombers and dive-bombers. The invasion was supported by a fleet consisting of 18 battleships, 27 cruisers, 177 destroyers/destroyer escorts, 39 aircraft carriers (11 fleet carriers, 6 light carriers and 22 escort carriers) and various support and troop transport ships.The British naval contingent accompanied 251 British naval aircraft and included a British Commonwealth fleet with Australian, New Zealand and Canadian ships and personnel.\n\nJapanese\nThe Japanese land campaign (mainly defensive) was conducted by the 67,000-strong (77,000 according to some sources) regular 32nd Army and some 9,000 Imperial Japanese Navy troops at Oroku Naval Base (only a few hundred of whom had been trained and equipped for ground combat), supported by 39,000 drafted local Ryukyuan people (including 24,000 hastily drafted rear militia called Boeitai and 15,000 non-uniformed laborers). The Japanese had used kamikaze tactics since the Battle of Leyte Gulf, but for the first time they became a major part of the defense. Between the American landing on 1 April and 25 May, seven major kamikaze attacks were attempted, involving more than 1,500 planes.\nThe 32nd Army initially consisted of the 9th, 24th and 62nd Divisions and the 44th Independent Mixed Brigade. The 9th Division was moved to Taiwan before the invasion, resulting in shuffling of Japanese defensive plans. Primary resistance was to be led in the south by Lieutenant General Mitsuru Ushijima, his chief of staff, Lieutenant General Isamu Chō and his chief of operations, Colonel Hiromichi Yahara. Yahara advocated a defensive strategy, whilst Chō advocated an offensive one.\nIn the north, Colonel Takehido Udo was in command. The naval troops were led by Rear Admiral Minoru Ōta. They expected the Americans to land 6–10 divisions against the Japanese garrison of two and a half divisions. The staff calculated that superior quality and numbers of weapons gave each US division five or six times the firepower of a Japanese division. To this, would be added the Americans' abundant naval and air firepower.\n\nJapanese use of children\nOn Okinawa, the Imperial Japanese Army mobilized 1,780 schoolboys aged 14–17 years into front line service as an Iron and Blood Imperial Corps (Japanese: 鉄血勤皇隊, romanized: Tekketsu Kinnōtai),  while female Himeyuri students were organized into a nursing unit. This mobilization was conducted by an ordinance of the Ministry of the Army, not by law. The ordinances mobilized the students as volunteer soldiers for form's sake; in reality, the military authorities ordered schools to force almost all students to \"volunteer\" as soldiers; sometimes they counterfeited the necessary documents. About half of the Tekketsu Kinnōtai were killed, including in suicide bomb attacks against tanks and in guerrilla operations.\nAmong the 21 male and female secondary schools that made up these student corps, 2,000 students died on the battlefield. Even with the female students acting mainly as nurses to Japanese soldiers, they were still exposed to the harsh conditions of war.\n\nNaval battle\nThere was a hypnotic fascination to the sight so alien to our Western philosophy. We watched each plunging kamikaze with the detached horror of one witnessing a terrible spectacle rather than as the intended victim. We forgot self for the moment as we groped hopelessly for the thought of that other man up there.\nThe US Navy's Task Force 58, deployed to the east of Okinawa with a picket group of 6 to 8 destroyers, kept 13 carriers (7 fleet carriers and 6 light carriers) on duty from 23 March to 27 April and a smaller number thereafter. Until 27 April, a minimum of 14 and up to 18 escort carriers were in the area at all times. Until 20 April, British Task Force 57, with 4 large and 6 escort carriers, remained off the Sakishima Islands to protect the southern flank.: 97 The protracted length of the campaign under stressful conditions forced Admiral Chester W. Nimitz to take the unprecedented step of relieving the principal naval commanders to rest and recuperate. Following the practice of changing the fleet designation with the change of commanders, US naval forces began the campaign as the US 5th Fleet under Admiral Spruance, but ended it as the 3rd Fleet under Admiral Halsey.\nJapanese air opposition had been relatively light during the first few days after the landings. However, on 6 April the expected air reaction began with an attack by 400 planes from Kyushu. Periodic heavy air attacks continued through April. During the period 26 March to 30 April, 20 American ships were sunk and 157 damaged by enemy action. By 30 April the Japanese had lost more than 1,100 planes to Allied naval forces alone.: 102 Between 6 April and 22 June, the Japanese flew 1,465 kamikaze aircraft in large-scale attacks from Kyushu, 185 individual kamikaze sorties from Kyushu, and 250 individual kamikaze sorties from Taiwan, then called Formosa. While US intelligence estimated there were 89 planes on Formosa, the Japanese actually had about 700, dismantled or well camouflaged and dispersed into scattered villages and towns; the US Fifth Air Force disputed Navy claims of kamikaze coming from Formosa.The ships lost were smaller vessels, particularly the destroyers of the radar pickets, as well as destroyer escorts and landing ships. While no major Allied warships were lost, several fleet carriers were severely damaged. Land-based Shin'yō-class suicide motorboats were also used in the Japanese suicide attacks, although Ushijima had disbanded the majority of the suicide boat battalions before the battle because of expected low effectiveness against a superior enemy. The boat crews were re-formed into three additional infantry battalions.\n\nOperation Ten-Go\nOperation Ten-Go (Ten-gō sakusen) was the attempted attack by a strike force of 10 Japanese surface vessels, led by Yamato and commanded by Admiral Seiichi Itō. This small task force had been ordered to fight through enemy naval forces, then beach Yamato and fight from shore, using her guns as coastal artillery and her crew as naval infantry. The Ten-Go force was spotted by submarines shortly after it left the Japanese home waters and was intercepted by US carrier aircraft.\nUnder attack from more than 300 aircraft over a two-hour span, the world's largest battleship sank on 7 April 1945 after a one-sided battle, long before she could reach Okinawa. (US torpedo bombers were instructed to aim for only one side to prevent effective counter flooding by the battleship's crew, and to aim for the bow or the stern where armor was believed to be the thinnest.) Of Yamato's screening force, the light cruiser Yahagi and 4 of the 8 destroyers were also sunk. The Imperial Japanese Navy lost some 3,700 sailors, including Admiral Itō, at the cost of 10 US aircraft and 12 airmen.\n\nBritish Pacific Fleet\nThe British Pacific Fleet, taking part as Task Force 57, was assigned the task of neutralizing the Japanese airfields in the Sakishima Islands, which it did successfully from March 26th to April 10th. On April 10th, its attention was shifted to airfields in northern Formosa. The force withdrew to San Pedro Bay on April 23. On May 1, the British Pacific Fleet returned to action, subduing the airfields as before, this time with naval bombardment as well as aircraft. Several kamikaze attacks caused significant damage, but as the Royal Navy carriers had armoured flight decks, they experienced only a brief interruption to their force's operations.\n\nLand battle\nThe land battle took place over about 81 days beginning on 1 April 1945. The first Americans ashore were soldiers of the 77th Infantry Division who landed in the Kerama Islands, 15 mi (24 km) west of Okinawa on 26 March. Subsidiary landings followed, and the Kerama group was secured over the next five days. In these preliminary operations, the 77th Infantry Division suffered 27 dead and 81 wounded, while the Japanese dead and captured numbered over 650. The operation provided a protected anchorage for the fleet and eliminated the threat from suicide boats.: 50–60 On 31 March, Marines of the Amphibious Reconnaissance Battalion landed without opposition on Keise Shima, four islets just 8 mi (13 km) west of the Okinawan capital of Naha. A group of 155 mm (6.1 in) \"Long Tom\" artillery pieces went ashore on the islets to cover operations on Okinawa.: 57\n\nNorthern Okinawa\nThe main landing was made by the XXIV Corps and the III Amphibious Corps on the Hagushi beaches on the western coast of Okinawa on 1 April. The 2nd Marine Division conducted a demonstration off the Minatoga beaches on the southeastern coast to deceive the Japanese about American intentions and delay movement of reserves from there.: 68–74 Tenth Army swept across the south-central part of the island with relative ease, capturing the Kadena and the Yomitan airbases within hours of the landing.: 67–69 : 74–75  In light of the weak opposition, General Buckner decided to proceed immediately with Phase II of his plan, the seizure of northern Okinawa. The 6th Marine Division headed up the Ishikawa Isthmus and by 7 April had sealed off the Motobu Peninsula.: 138–141 Six days later on 13 April, the 2nd Battalion, 22nd Marine Regiment, reached Hedo Point at the northernmost tip of the island. By this point, the bulk of the Japanese forces in the north (codenamed Udo Force) were cornered on the Motobu Peninsula. The terrain was mountainous and wooded, with the Japanese defenses concentrated on Mount Yaedake, a twisted mass of rocky ridges and ravines on the center of the peninsula. There was heavy fighting before the Marines finally cleared Yaedake on 18 April.: 141–148  However, this was not the end of ground combat in northern Okinawa. On 24 May, the Japanese mounted Operation Gi-gou: a company of Giretsu Kuteitai commandos were airlifted in a suicide attack on Yomitan. They destroyed 70,000 US gallons (260,000 L) of fuel and nine planes before being killed by the defenders, who lost two men.\nMeanwhile, the 77th Infantry Division assaulted Ie Shima, a small island off the western end of the peninsula, on 16 April. In addition to conventional hazards, the 77th Infantry Division encountered kamikaze attacks and even local women armed with spears. There was heavy fighting before the area was declared secured on 21 April and became another airbase for operations against Japan.: 149–183\n\nSouthern Okinawa\nWhile the 6th Marine Division cleared northern Okinawa, the US Army 96th and 7th Infantry Divisions wheeled south across the narrow isthmus of Okinawa. The 96th Infantry Division began to encounter fierce resistance in west-central Okinawa from Japanese troops holding fortified positions east of Highway No. 1 and about 5 mi (8 km) northwest of Shuri, from what came to be known as Cactus Ridge.: 104–105  The 7th Infantry Division encountered similarly fierce Japanese opposition from a rocky pinnacle located about 1,000 yd (910 m) southwest of Arakachi (later dubbed \"The Pinnacle\"). By the night of 8 April, American troops had cleared these and several other strongly fortified positions. They suffered over 1,500 battle casualties in the process while killing or capturing about 4,500 Japanese. Yet the battle had only begun, for it was realized that \"these were merely outposts,\" guarding the Shuri Line.: 105–108 The next American objective was Kakazu Ridge (26.259°N 127.737°E / 26.259; 127.737), two hills with a connecting saddle that formed part of Shuri's outer defenses. The Japanese had prepared their positions well and fought tenaciously. The Japanese soldiers hid in fortified caves. American forces often lost personnel before clearing the Japanese out from each cave or other hiding place. The Japanese sent Okinawans at gunpoint out to obtain water and supplies for them, which led to civilian casualties. The American advance was inexorable but resulted in a high number of casualties on both sides.: 110–125 As the American assault against Kakazu Ridge stalled, Lieutenant General Ushijima—influenced by General Chō—decided to take the offensive. On the evening of 12 April, the 32nd Army attacked American positions across the entire front. The Japanese attack was heavy, sustained, and well organized. After fierce close combat, the attackers retreated, only to repeat their offensive the following night. A final assault on 14 April was again repulsed. The effort led the 32nd Army's staff to conclude that the Americans were vulnerable to night infiltration tactics but that their superior firepower made any offensive Japanese troop concentrations extremely dangerous, and they reverted to their defensive strategy.: 130–137 The 27th Infantry Division, which had landed on 9 April, took over on the right, along the west coast of Okinawa. General John R. Hodge now had three divisions in the line, with the 96th in the middle and the 7th to the east, with each division holding a front of only about 1.5 mi (2.4 km). Hodge launched a new offensive on 19 April with a barrage of 324 guns, the largest ever in the Pacific Ocean Theater. Battleships, cruisers, and destroyers joined the bombardment, which was followed by 650 Navy and Marine planes attacking the Japanese positions with napalm, rockets, bombs, and machine guns. The Japanese defenses were sited on reverse slopes, where the defenders waited out the artillery barrage and aerial attack in relative safety, emerging from the caves to rain mortar rounds and grenades upon the Americans advancing up the forward slope.: 184–194 A tank assault to achieve breakthrough by outflanking Kakazu Ridge failed to link up with its infantry support attempting to cross the ridge and therefore failed with the loss of 22 tanks. Although flame tanks cleared many cave defenses, there was no breakthrough, and the XXIV Corps suffered 720 casualties. The losses might have been greater except for the fact that the Japanese had practically all of their infantry reserves tied up farther south, held there by another feint off the Minatoga beaches by the 2nd Marine Division that coincided with the attack.: 196–207 At the end of April, after Army forces had pushed through the Machinato defensive line, the 1st Marine Division relieved the 27th Infantry Division and the 77th Infantry Division relieved the 96th. When the 6th Marine Division arrived, the III Amphibious Corps took over the right flank and Tenth Army assumed control of the battle.: 265 \nOn 4 May, the 32nd Army launched another counter-offensive. This time, Ushijima attempted to make amphibious assaults on the coasts behind American lines. To support his offensive, the Japanese artillery moved into the open. By doing so, they were able to fire 13,000 rounds in support, but effective American counter-battery fire destroyed dozens of Japanese artillery pieces. The attack failed.: 283–302 Buckner launched another American attack on 11 May. Ten days of fierce fighting followed. On 13 May, troops of the 96th Infantry Division and 763rd Tank Battalion captured Conical Hill (26.21°N 127.75°E / 26.21; 127.75). Rising 476 ft (145 m) above the Yonabaru coastal plain, this feature was the eastern anchor of the main Japanese defenses and was defended by about 1,000 Japanese. Meanwhile, on the opposite coast, the 1st and 6th Marine Divisions fought for \"Sugar Loaf Hill\" (26.222°N 127.696°E / 26.222; 127.696). The capture of these two key positions exposed the Japanese around Shuri on both sides. Buckner hoped to envelop Shuri and trap the main Japanese defending force.: 311–359 By the end of May, monsoon rains which had turned contested hills and roads into a morass exacerbated both the tactical and medical situations. The ground advance began to resemble a World War I battlefield, as troops became mired in mud, and flooded roads greatly inhibited evacuation of wounded to the rear. Troops lived on a field sodden by rain, part garbage dump and part graveyard. Unburied Japanese and American bodies decayed, sank in the mud and became part of a noxious stew. Anyone sliding down the greasy slopes could easily find their pockets full of maggots at the end of the journey.: 364–370 From 24 to 27 May the 6th Marine Division cautiously occupied the ruins of Naha, the largest city on the island, finding it largely deserted.: 372–377 On 26 May aerial observers saw large troop movements just below Shuri. On 28 May Marine patrols found recently abandoned positions west of Shuri. By 30 May the consensus among Army and Marine intelligence was that the majority of Japanese forces had withdrawn from the Shuri Line.: 391–392  On 29 May the 1st Battalion, 5th Marines (1/5 Marines) occupied high ground 700 yards (640 m) east of Shuri Castle and reported that the castle appeared undefended. At 10:15 Company A, 1/5 Marines occupied the castle: 395–496 Shuri Castle had been shelled by the battleship USS Mississippi for three days before this advance. The 32nd Army withdrew to the south and thus the Marines had an easy task of securing Shuri Castle. The castle, however, was outside the 1st Marine Division's assigned zone, and only frantic efforts by the commander and staff of the 77th Infantry Division prevented an American airstrike and artillery bombardment which would have resulted in many friendly fire casualties.: 396 On 29 May a Confederate flag was raised over Shuri Castle, before being removed and replaced by a US flag three days later on orders of General Simon B. Buckner Jr.The Japanese retreat, although harassed by artillery fire, was conducted with great skill at night and aided by the monsoon storms. The 32nd Army was able to move nearly 30,000 personnel into its last defense line on the Kiyan Peninsula, which ultimately led to the greatest slaughter on Okinawa in the latter stages of the battle, including the deaths of thousands of civilians. In addition, there were 9,000 IJN troops supported by 1,100 militia, with approximately 4,000 holed up at the underground headquarters on the hillside overlooking the Okinawa Naval Base in the Oroku Peninsula, east of the airfield.: 392–394 On 4 June, elements of the 6th Marine Division launched an amphibious assault on the peninsula. The 4,000 Japanese sailors, including Admiral Ōta, all committed suicide within the hand-built tunnels of the underground naval headquarters on 13 June.: 427–434  By 17 June, the remnants of Ushijima's shattered 32nd Army were pushed into a small pocket in the far south of the island to the southeast of Itoman.: 455–4661 On 18 June, General Buckner was killed by Japanese artillery fire while monitoring the progress of his troops from a forward observation post. Buckner was replaced by Major General Roy Geiger. Upon assuming command, Geiger became the only US Marine to command a numbered army of the US Army in combat; he was relieved five days later by General Joseph Stilwell. On 19 June, Brigadier General Claudius Miller Easley, the commander of the 96th Infantry Division, was killed by Japanese machine-gun fire, also while checking on the progress of his troops at the front.: 461 The last remnants of Japanese resistance ended on 21 June, although some Japanese continued hiding, including the future governor of Okinawa Prefecture, Masahide Ōta. Ushijima and Chō committed suicide by seppuku in their command headquarters on Hill 89 in the closing hours of the battle.: 468–471  Colonel Yahara had asked Ushijima for permission to commit suicide, but the general refused his request, saying: \"If you die there will be no one left who knows the truth about the battle of Okinawa. Bear the temporary shame but endure it. This is an order from your army commander.\": 723  Yahara was the most senior officer to have survived the battle on the island, and he later authored a book titled The Battle for Okinawa. On 22 June Tenth Army held a flag-raising ceremony to mark the end of organized resistance on Okinawa. On 23 June a mopping-up operation commenced, which concluded on 30 June.: 471–473 On 15 August 1945, Admiral Matome Ugaki was killed while part of a kamikaze raid on Iheyajima island. The official surrender ceremony was held on 7 September, near the Kadena Airfield.\n\nCasualties\nThe Battle of Okinawa was the bloodiest battle of the Pacific War. The most complete tally of deaths during the battle is at the Cornerstone of Peace monument at the Okinawa Prefectural Peace Memorial Museum, which identifies the names of each individual who died at Okinawa in World War II. As of 2022, the monument lists 241,686 names, including 149,611 Okinawans, 77,485 Imperial Japanese soldiers, 14,010 Americans, and smaller numbers of people from South Korea (382), the United Kingdom (82), North Korea (82) and Taiwan (34).The numbers correspond to recorded deaths during the Battle of Okinawa from the time of the American landings in the Kerama Islands on 26 March 1945 to the signing of the Japanese surrender on 2 September 1945, in addition to all Okinawan casualties in the Pacific War in the 15 years from the Manchurian Incident, along with those who died in Okinawa from war-related events in the year before the battle and the year after the surrender. 234,183 names were inscribed by the time of unveiling, and new names are added as necessary. 40,000 of the Okinawan civilians killed had been drafted or impressed by the Japanese army and are often counted as combat deaths.\n\nMilitary losses\nAmerican\nThe Americans suffered some 48,000 casualties, not including some 33,000 non-battle casualties (psychiatric, injuries, illnesses), of whom over 12,000 were killed or missing. Killed in action were 4,907 Navy, 4,675 Army, and 2,938 Marine Corps personnel; when excluding naval losses at sea and losses on the surrounding islands (such as Ie Shima), 6,316 killed and over 30,000 wounded occurred on Okinawa proper.  Other authors such as John Keegan have come up with higher numbers.The most famous American casualty was Lieutenant General Buckner, whose decision to attack the Japanese defenses head-on, although extremely costly in American lives, was ultimately successful. Four days from the closing of the campaign, Buckner was killed by Japanese artillery fire, which blew lethal slivers of coral into his body, while inspecting his troops at the front line. He was the highest-ranking US officer to be killed by enemy fire during the Second World War. The day after Buckner was killed, Brigadier General Easley was killed by Japanese machine-gun fire. War correspondent Ernie Pyle was also killed by Japanese machine-gun fire on Ie Shima, a small island just off of northwestern Okinawa.\nAircraft losses over the three-month period were 768 US planes, including those bombing the Kyushu airfields launching kamikazes. Combat losses were 458, and the other 310 were operational accidents. At sea, 368 Allied ships—including 120 amphibious craft—were damaged while another 36—including 15 amphibious ships and 12 destroyers—were sunk during the Okinawa campaign. The US Navy's dead exceeded its wounded, with 4,907 killed and 4,874 wounded, primarily from kamikaze attacks.American personnel casualties included thousands of cases of mental breakdown. According to the account of the battle presented in Marine Corps Gazette:\n\nMore mental health issues arose from the Battle of Okinawa than any other battle in the Pacific during World War II. The constant bombardment from artillery and mortars coupled with the high casualty rates led to a great deal of personnel coming down with combat fatigue. Additionally, the rains caused mud that prevented tanks from moving and tracks from pulling out the dead, forcing Marines (who pride themselves on burying their dead in a proper and honorable manner) to leave their comrades where they lay. This, coupled with thousands of bodies both friend and foe littering the entire island, created a scent you could nearly taste. Morale was dangerously low by May and the state of discipline on a moral basis had a new low barometer for acceptable behavior. The ruthless atrocities by the Japanese throughout the war had already brought on an altered behavior (deemed so by traditional standards) by many Americans resulting in the desecration of Japanese remains, but the Japanese tactic of using the Okinawan people as human shields brought about a new aspect of terror and torment to the psychological capacity of the Americans.\nMedal of Honor recipients from Okinawa are:\n\nBeauford T. Anderson – 13 April\nRichard E. Bush – 16 April\nRobert Eugene Bush – 2 May\nHenry A. Courtney Jr. – 14–15 May\nClarence B. Craft – 31 May\nJames L. Day – 14–17 May\nDesmond Doss – 29 April – 21 May\nJohn P. Fardy – 7 May\nWilliam A. Foster – 2 May\nHarold Gonsalves – 15 April\nWilliam D. Halyburton Jr. – 10 May\nDale M. Hansen – 7 May\nLouis J. Hauge Jr. – 14 May\nElbert L. Kinser – 4 May\nFred F. Lester – 8 June\nMartin O. May – 19–21 April\nRichard M. McCool Jr. – 10–11 June\nRobert M. McTureous Jr. – 7 June\nJohn W. Meagher – 19 June\nEdward J. Moskala – 9 April\nJoseph E. Muller – 15–16 May\nAlejandro R. Ruiz – 28 April\nAlbert E. Schwab – 7 May\nSeymour W. Terry – 11 May\n\nAllied naval vessels sunk or damaged at Okinawa\nThe following table lists the Allied naval vessels that received damage or were sunk in the Battle of Okinawa between 19 March – 30 July 1945. The table lists a total of 147 damaged ships, five of which were damaged by enemy suicide boats and another five by mines. During the naval battle, which started before the amphibious landings on Okinawa on 1 April, USS Franklin suffered over 800 killed and missing and USS Bunker Hill suffered 396 killed and missing. These were the first and third largest loss of life on damaged or sunken American aircraft carriers during World War II. The USS Franklin (hit by two bombs in a level bombing attack by a D4Y Judy on 19 March 1945) and USS Bunker Hill were the only two aircraft carriers that sustained very severe damage from Japanese attacks and as a result were the only aircraft carriers in the Essex-class that did not experience any active service after the end of World War II. One source estimated that total Japanese sorties during the entire Okinawa campaign exceeded 3,700, with a large percentage being kamikaze attacks, and that the attackers damaged slightly more than 200 Allied vessels, with 4,900 naval officers and seamen killed and roughly 4,824 wounded or missing. The USS Thorton was damaged as the result of a collision with another US ship.\n*  sunk or had to be scuttled due to irreparable damage. Of those sunk, the majority were relatively smaller ships; these included destroyers of around 300–450 feet. A few small cargo ships were also sunk, several containing munitions which caught fire.\n#  scrapped or decommissioned as a result of damage.\n\nJapanese losses\nThe US military estimates that 110,071 Japanese soldiers were killed during the battle. This total includes conscripted Okinawan civilians.\n\nA total of 7,401 Japanese regulars and 3,400 Okinawan conscripts surrendered or were captured during the battle of Okinawa. Additional Japanese and renegade Okinawans were captured or surrendered over the next few months, bringing the total to 16,346.: 489  This was the first battle in the Pacific War in which thousands of Japanese soldiers surrendered or were captured. Many of the prisoners were native Okinawans who had been pressed into service shortly before the battle and were less imbued with the Imperial Japanese Army's no-surrender doctrine. When the American forces occupied the island, many Japanese soldiers put on Okinawan clothing to avoid capture, and some Okinawans would come to the Americans' aid by offering to identify these mainland Japanese.\nThe Japanese lost 16 combat vessels, including the super battleship Yamato. Early claims of Japanese aircraft losses put the total at 7,800,: 474  however later examination of Japanese records revealed that Japanese aircraft losses at Okinawa were far below often-repeated US estimates for the campaign. The number of conventional and kamikaze aircraft actually lost or expended by the 3rd, 5th, and 10th Air Fleets, combined with about 500 lost or expended by the Imperial Army at Okinawa, was roughly 1,430. The Allies destroyed 27 Japanese tanks and 743 artillery pieces (including mortars, anti-tank and anti-aircraft guns), some of them eliminated by the naval and air bombardments but most knocked out by American counter-battery fire.\n\nCivilian losses, suicides, and atrocities\nSome of the other islands that saw major battles in World War II, such as Iwo Jima, were uninhabited or had been evacuated. Okinawa, by contrast, had a large indigenous civilian population; US Army records from the planning phase of the operation made the assumption that Okinawa was home to about 300,000 civilians. The official US Tenth Army count for the 82-day campaign is a total of 142,058 recovered enemy bodies (including those civilians pressed into service by the Imperial Japanese Army), with the deduction made that about 42,000 were non-uniformed civilians who had been killed in the crossfire. Okinawa Prefecture's estimate is over 100,000 losses.During the battle, American forces found it difficult to distinguish civilians from soldiers. It became common for them to shoot at Okinawan houses, as one infantryman wrote:\n\nThere was some return fire from a few of the houses, but the others were probably occupied by civilians—and we didn't care. It was a terrible thing not to distinguish between the enemy and women and children. Americans always had great compassion, especially for children. Now we fired indiscriminately.\n\nIn its history of the war, the Okinawa Prefectural Peace Memorial Museum presents Okinawa as being caught between Japan and the United States. During the battle, the Imperial Japanese Army showed indifference to Okinawans' safety, and its soldiers used civilians as human shields or outright killed them. The Japanese military also confiscated food from the Okinawans and executed those who hid it, leading to mass starvation, and forced civilians out of their shelters. Japanese soldiers also killed about 1,000 people who spoke in the Okinawan language to suppress spying. The museum writes that \"some were blown apart by [artillery] shells, some finding themselves in a hopeless situation were driven to suicide, some died of starvation, some succumbed to malaria, while others fell victim to the retreating Japanese troops.\"With the impending Japanese defeat, civilians often committed mass suicide, urged on by the Japanese soldiers who told locals that victorious American soldiers would go on a rampage of killing and raping. Ryūkyū Shimpō, one of the two major Okinawan newspapers, wrote in 2007: \"There are many Okinawans who have testified that the Japanese Army directed them to commit suicide. There are also people who have testified that they were handed grenades by Japanese soldiers\" to blow themselves up. Thousands of civilians, having been induced by Japanese propaganda to believe that American soldiers were barbarians who committed horrible atrocities, killed their families and themselves to avoid capture at the hands of the Americans. Some of them threw themselves and their family members from the southern cliffs where the Peace Museum now resides.Okinawans \"were often surprised at the comparatively humane treatment they received from the American enemy\". Islands of Discontent: Okinawan Responses to Japanese and American Power by Mark Selden states that the Americans \"did not pursue a policy of torture, rape, and murder of civilians as Japanese military officials had warned\". American Military Intelligence Corps combat translators such as Teruto Tsubota managed to convince many civilians not to kill themselves. Survivors of the mass suicides blamed also the indoctrination of their education system of the time, in which the Okinawans were taught to become \"more Japanese than the Japanese\" and were expected to prove it.\nWitnesses and historians claim that soldiers, mainly Japanese troops, raped Okinawan women during the battle. Rape by Japanese troops reportedly \"became common\" in June, after it became clear that the Imperial Japanese Army had been defeated.: 462  Marine Corps officials in Okinawa and Washington have said that they knew of no rapes by American personnel in Okinawa at the end of the war. There are, however, numerous credible testimony accounts which note that a large number of rapes were committed by American forces during the battle. This includes stories of rape after trading sexual favors or even marrying Americans, such as the alleged incident in the village of Katsuyama, where civilians said they had formed a vigilante group to ambush and kill three black American soldiers who they claimed would frequently rape the local girls there.\n\nMEXT textbook controversy\nThere is ongoing disagreement between Okinawa's local government and Japan's national government over the role of the Japanese military in civilian mass suicides during the battle. In March 2007, the national Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) advised textbook publishers to reword descriptions that the embattled Imperial Japanese Army forced civilians to kill themselves in the war to avoid being taken prisoner. MEXT preferred descriptions that just say that civilians received hand grenades from the Japanese military. This move sparked widespread protests among Okinawans. In June 2007, the Okinawa Prefectural Assembly adopted a resolution stating, \"We strongly call on the (national) government to retract the instruction and to immediately restore the description in the textbooks so the truth of the Battle of Okinawa will be handed down correctly and a tragic war will never happen again.\"On 29 September 2007, about 110,000 people held the biggest political rally in the history of Okinawa to demand that MEXT retract its order to textbook publishers regarding revising the account of the civilian suicides. The resolution states, \"It is an undeniable fact that the 'multiple suicides' would not have occurred without the involvement of the Japanese military and any deletion of or revision to (the descriptions) is a denial and distortion of the many testimonies by those people who survived the incidents.\" In December 2007, MEXT partially admitted the role of the Japanese military in civilian mass suicides. The ministry's Textbook Authorization Council allowed the publishers to reinstate the reference that civilians \"were forced into mass suicides by the Japanese military\", on condition it is placed in sufficient context. The council report states, \"It can be said that from the viewpoint of the Okinawa residents, they were forced into the mass suicides.\" That was not enough for the survivors who said it is important for children today to know what really happened.The Nobel Prize-winning author Kenzaburō Ōe wrote a booklet that states that the mass suicide order was given by the military during the battle. He was sued by revisionists, including a wartime commander during the battle, who disputed this and wanted to stop publication of the booklet. At a court hearing, Ōe testified \"Mass suicides were forced on Okinawa islanders under Japan's hierarchical social structure that ran through the state of Japan, the Japanese armed forces and local garrisons.\" In March 2008, the Osaka Prefecture Court ruled in favor of Ōe, stating, \"It can be said the military was deeply involved in the mass suicides.\" The court recognized the military's involvement in the mass suicides and murder-suicides, citing the testimony about the distribution of grenades for suicide by soldiers and the fact that mass suicides were not recorded on islands where the military was not stationed.In 2012, Korean-Japanese director Pak Su-nam announced her work on the documentary Nuchigafu (Okinawan for \"only if one is alive\") collecting living survivors' accounts to show \"the truth of history to many people\", alleging that \"there were two types of orders for 'honorable deaths'—one for residents to kill each other and the other for the military to kill all residents\". In March 2013, Japanese textbook publisher Shimizu Shoin was permitted by MEXT to publish the statements that \"Orders from Japanese soldiers led to Okinawans committing group suicide\" and \"The [Japanese] army caused many tragedies in Okinawa, killing local civilians and forcing them to commit mass suicide.\"\n\nAftermath\n90% of the buildings on the island were destroyed, along with countless historical documents, artifacts, and cultural treasures, and the tropical landscape was turned into \"a vast field of mud, lead, decay and maggots\". The military value of Okinawa was significant. Okinawa provided a fleet anchorage, troop staging areas, and airfields in proximity to Japan. The US cleared the surrounding waters of mines in Operation Zebra, occupied Okinawa, and set up the United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands, a form of military government, after the battle. In 2011, one official of the prefectural government told David Hearst of The Guardian:\n\nYou have the Battle of Britain, in which your airmen protected the British people. We had the Battle of Okinawa, in which the exact opposite happened. The Japanese army not only starved the Okinawans but used them as human shields. That dark history is still present today – and Japan and the US should study it before they decide what to do with next.\n\nEffect on the wider war\nBecause the next major event following the Battle of Okinawa was the total surrender of Japan, the effect of this battle is more difficult to consider. Because Japan surrendered when it did, the anticipated series of battles and the invasion of the Japanese homeland never occurred, and all military strategies on both sides which presupposed this apparently-inevitable next development were immediately rendered moot.\nSome military historians believe that the Okinawa campaign led directly to the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, as a means of avoiding the planned ground invasion of the Japanese mainland. This view is explained by Victor Davis Hanson in his book Ripples of Battle:\n\n... because the Japanese on Okinawa ... were so fierce in their defense (even when cut off and without supplies), and because casualties were so appalling, many American strategists looked for an alternative means to subdue mainland Japan, other than a direct invasion. This means presented itself, with the advent of atomic bombs, which worked admirably in convincing the Japanese to sue for peace [unconditionally], without American casualties.\nMeanwhile, many parties continue to debate the broader question of \"why Japan surrendered\", attributing the surrender to a number of possible reasons including: the atomic bombings, the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, and Japan's depleted resources.\n\nMemorial\nIn 1995, the Okinawa government erected a memorial monument named the Cornerstone of Peace in Mabuni, the site of the last fighting in southeastern Okinawa. The memorial lists all the known names of those who died in the battle, civilian and military, Japanese and foreign. As of 2022, the monument lists 241,686 names.\n\nModern US base\nSignificant US forces remain garrisoned on Okinawa as the United States Forces Japan, which the Japanese government sees as an important guarantee of regional stability, and Kadena remains the largest US air base in Asia. Local residents have long protested against the size and presence of the base.\n\nSee also\nHimeyuri students\nChiran Special Attack Peace Museum\nHistory of the Ryukyus\nJosef R. Sheetz\nRape during the occupation of Japan \nSuicide in Japan\nOkinawa Memorial Day\nNaval Base Okinawa\nMarine Corps Air Station Futenma\nCamp Hansen\nTorii Station\nCamp Schwab\nCamp Foster\nCamp Kinser\nGiretsu Kuteitai\nOkinawa Prefectural Peace Memorial Museum\nPassage 6:\nBattle of Jupiter Inlet\nThe Battles of the Loxahatchee occurred west of what is now Jupiter, Florida in January 1838 between the United States military and the Seminole Indians (including Black Seminoles). The First Battle of the Loxahatchee (Powell's Battle) occurred on January 15, involving a mixed Navy-Army unit under Lt. Levin M. Powell. The Second Battle of the Loxahatchee (Jesup's Battle) occurred on January 24 involving an army under Major General Thomas Jesup. The two battles were fought within a few miles of each other against the same group of Seminoles.\n\nBackground\nAfter the American Revolutionary War, Spain regained control of Florida from Britain as part of the Treaty of Paris, and the Seminoles set up farms and acquired land grants from the Spanish. At the same time, because the state was in Spanish control, escaped slaves took advantage of the treaty and found refuge in Florida. These two developments pushed the U.S. to begin the First Seminole War (1817–1818) on the Florida-Georgia border, which pushed the Seminoles further south.\nIn May 1832, the Treaty of Payne's Landing required Indians to forfeit their land and move west within a three-year window. In 1835, the U.S. Army returned to Florida to enforce the treaty and found the Indians prepared to fight.\n\nBattle name\nThe names of the two battles have not been historically consistent. Older sources sometimes erroneously refer to Powell's Battle as the Battle of Jupiter Inlet (including Guinn), probably because contemporary newspaper accounts described it as occurring \"near\" the inlet.\nThe modern name of both battles refers to the Loxahatchee River (not the modern community of Loxahatchee, Florida). \"Loxahatchee\" is an Anglicized version of the waterway's Seminole name, \"Locha-hatchee\" (turtle river). Historical spellings have varied, including Lockahatchee (Mahon) and Locha-Hatchie (Buker).\n\nFirst Battle of the Loxahatchee (Powell's Battle)\nLieutenant Levin M. Powell led the Everglades Expeditionary Unit, a mixed Navy-Army force, up the Loxahatchee River on January 15, 1838, in search of Seminole villages. Powell's men captured a Seminole woman and ordered her to lead them to the nearest village.\nLeaving 23 men to guard the boats, Powell divided his remaining men under Acting Lt. William P. McArthur (USN), Acting Lt. Horace N. Harrison (USN), and Lt. Henry W. Fowler (USA). After marching 5 miles (8.0 km), they came under fire from Seminoles. Powell ordered his men to charge and the Seminoles fell back into a dense cypress swamp where they made a determined stand. Powell, McArthur, and Harrison were all wounded and naval surgeon Dr. Frederick Leitner killed. The loss of the officers caused most of Powell's force to fall back in disorder. Lt. Fowler was wounded as he attempted to cover the retreat. With all the other officers down, Joseph E. Johnston took charge and organized a successful retreat. The men and boats left after dark to return to Fort Pierce. One boat, containing gunpowder and alcohol, was accidentally left behind in the dark. After recovering a lost man initially thought to be killed, Powell reported his losses as 4 killed and 22 wounded.\n\nSecond Battle of the Loxahatchee (Jesup's Battle)\nNotified that Powell had definitively located a group of Seminoles, Major General Thomas S. Jesup brought his army overland from Fort Pierce, passing west of the St. Lucie River and approaching the Seminole encampment from the west. Jesup had a force of about 1,500 men: 600 dragoons (2nd Dragoons under Col. William S. Harney), 400 artillery (part of the 3rd US Artillery under Colonel Lemuel Gates), 400 Tennessee Volunteers (under Major William Lauderdale), 100 Alabama Volunteers, and 35 Delaware Indian scouts.On the afternoon of January 24, Jesup's scouts located the Seminoles in a dense hammock. Jesup's men dragoons and infantry attacked, with support from cannons and Congreve rockets. The Seminoles fell back across the Loxahatchee River and took up a second position on the east bank. Jesup attempted to lead the Tennessee Volunteers in a charge, but had his glasses shot off his face. Col. Harney led 15 dragoons across the river upstream of the Seminoles and flanked their position, causing them to retreat in scattered groups and ending the battle.This engagement is considered the last true battle of the Second Seminole War.\n\nResults\nAfter the battle, Jesup's march marched east to what is now Pennock Point where they established Fort Jupiter. The general unsuccessfully petitioned the federal government to allow the Seminoles to remain in the Everglades and end the war.\nWilliam Lauderdale's Tennessee Volunteers subsequently marched south from Jupiter to New River where they established Fort Lauderdale.\n\nNotable participants\nJoseph E. Johnston was a volunteer at the First Battle of the Loxahatchee, having not yet been officially recommissioned in the Army. He claimed that there were \"no less than 30 bullet holes\" in his clothing, with one bullet cutting his scalp, leaving him with a scar. After receiving his commission as 1st Lieutenant on July 7, 1838, Johnston was given a brevet promotion to captain for his actions. He later became a Confederate general.Thomas S. Jesup was a US Army officer known as the \"Father of the Modern Quartermaster Corps.\" His military career spanned 52 years, starting in the War of 1812 and ending after 42 years as Quartermaster General. In 1836, President Andrew Jackson detached him from his title as Quartermaster General. First, to deal with the Creek tribe in Georgia and Alabama and then to assume command of all U.S. troops in Florida during the Second Seminole War.\nWilliam Lauderdale is the namesake of Fort Lauderdale.\nSam Jones was the spiritual medicine and war chief of the Miccosukee and Seminole people during the Second and Third Seminole Wars.\n\nBattlefield today\nThe exact location of both battlefields was unclear for most of the 20th century. At one time it was incorrectly identified as having taken place in modern Jonathan Dickinon State Park, with a marker placed there accordingly. In the 1980s, numerous avocational archaeologists, not all of them working together, concluded Jesup's battle occurred in Jupiter Farms along the Loxahatchee River Northwest Fork around and south of Indiantown Road (SR 706). An extensive archaeological survey by professional archaeologist Robert S. Carr and his Archaeological and Historical Conservancy (AHC) confirmed the location of the battlefield as well as numerous Seminole and pre-Seminole archaeological sites in Riverbend Park. The part of the park where the battle took place is now Loxahatchee River Battlefield Park. The park is managed by Palm Beach County Parks and Recreation.\nThe exact location of Powell's Battle is less clear, but probably occurred east of Riverbend Park.\nStarting in 2017, the Loxahatchee Battlefield Preservationists (LBP) have held an annual battle reenactment in late January.\n\nSee also\nList of battles won by Indigenous peoples of the Americas\nWest Indies Squadron\n\nNotes\nPassage 7:\nCamp Hovey\nCamp Hovey is a United States Army military base in Dongducheon, Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. It was named after Master Sergeant Howard Hovey who was killed in action at Pork Chop Hill during the Korean War. The camp is adjacent to the larger Camp Casey connected by a road known as \"Hovey Cut\". The nearest city to Camp Hovey is Dongducheon (also spelled Tongduch'on), which is roughly 15 miles (24 km) from the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). There is a south gate into Camp Hovey from Gwangam-dong village.\nPrior to the deactivation of the 1st ABCT, Camp Hovey was home to 1st ABCT Headquarters; 1st Battalion, 15th Field Artillery; 1st Brigade Special Troops Bn; 4th Chemical Company; and 4th Squadron, 7th Cavalry Regiment. C Co 1st Bn 503rd Infantry.\nCamp Hovey has an AAFES shoppette, Hovey Lanes Bowling Alley, Iron Triangle All-Ranks Club, Hovey Boys 10 HQ, DOD Community Bank, post office, athletic fields, Hovey Gym/indoor Swimming Pool, Library, Troop Medical Center, Military Clothing Store, Barber Shop, Dry Cleaners, New Car Sales, LG U+ Phone/Internet Store, Furniture Store, Tailor Shop, Mini-Mall, Bedding Store, Anthony's Pizza, AAFES American Cafe, Krispy Kreme Donuts, KATUSA snack bar and a DFAC (Dining Facility). Camp Hovey is one of the camps north of Seoul authorized Hardship Duty Pay of $150 per month as of 1 January 2001.\nIt is part of an area containing many installations known as the \"Casey Enclave\". Camp Hovey, together with other U.S. Army camps north of Seoul, was scheduled for closure in the 2019 time frame, with units moving to Camp Humphreys.\n\nSee also\nList of United States Army installations in South Korea\n\nNotes\nExternal links\nSecond Infantry Division website\nwww.facebook.com/usagrc, Camp Hovey & Area I Facebook page\nredcloud.korea.army.mil, official website of USAG Area I, Camp Red Cloud, Camp Casey & Camp Hovey, Korea",
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  "questions": [
    {
      "question_id": "q00",
      "qtype": "hotpotqa",
      "question": "Camp Courtney was named after the Major killed in action at the battle codenamed what?"
    }
  ]
}