1% references_part02.bib — WP44 Part II (Agent L). 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Le},36 year = {2014},37 eprint = {1409.3215},38 archiveprefix = {arXiv},39 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:1409.3215},40 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}41}4243@misc{bahdanau2014attention,44 title = {Neural {Machine} {Translation} by {Jointly} {Learning} to {Align} and {Translate}},45 author = {Dzmitry Bahdanau and Kyunghyun Cho and Yoshua Bengio},46 year = {2014},47 eprint = {1409.0473},48 archiveprefix = {arXiv},49 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:1409.0473},50 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}51}5253@misc{goodfellow2014gan,54 title = {Generative {Adversarial} {Networks}},55 author = {Ian J. Goodfellow and Jean Pouget-Abadie and Mehdi Mirza and Bing Xu and David Warde-Farley and Sherjil Ozair and Aaron Courville and Yoshua Bengio},56 year = {2014},57 eprint = {1406.2661},58 archiveprefix = {arXiv},59 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:1406.2661},60 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}61}6263@misc{mikolov2013word2vec,64 title = {Efficient {Estimation} of {Word} {Representations} in {Vector} {Space}},65 author = {Tomas Mikolov and Kai Chen and Greg Corrado and Jeffrey Dean},66 year = {2013},67 eprint = {1301.3781},68 archiveprefix = {arXiv},69 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:1301.3781},70 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}71}7273@misc{kingma2013vae,74 title = {{Auto-Encoding} {Variational} {Bayes}},75 author = {Diederik P Kingma and Max Welling},76 year = {2013},77 eprint = {1312.6114},78 archiveprefix = {arXiv},79 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:1312.6114},80 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}81}8283@misc{sevilla2022compute,84 title = {Compute {Trends} {Across} {Three} {Eras} of {Machine} {Learning}},85 author = {Jaime Sevilla and Lennart Heim and Anson Ho and Tamay Besiroglu and Marius Hobbhahn and Pablo Villalobos},86 year = {2022},87 eprint = {2202.05924},88 archiveprefix = {arXiv},89 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2202.05924},90 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}91}9293@misc{thompson2020limits,94 title = {The {Computational} {Limits} of {Deep} {Learning}},95 author = {Neil C. 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Gomez and Lukasz Kaiser and Illia Polosukhin},136 year = {2017},137 eprint = {1706.03762},138 archiveprefix = {arXiv},139 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:1706.03762},140 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}141}142143@misc{brown2020gpt3,144 title = {Language {Models} are {Few-Shot} {Learners}},145 author = {Tom B. Brown and Benjamin Mann and Nick Ryder and Melanie Subbiah and Jared Kaplan and Prafulla Dhariwal and Arvind Neelakantan and Pranav Shyam and Girish Sastry and Amanda Askell and others},146 year = {2020},147 eprint = {2005.14165},148 archiveprefix = {arXiv},149 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2005.14165},150 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}151}152153@misc{raffel2019t5,154 title = {Exploring the {Limits} of {Transfer} {Learning} with a {Unified} {Text-to-Text} {Transformer}},155 author = {Colin Raffel and Noam Shazeer and Adam Roberts and Katherine Lee and Sharan Narang and Michael Matena and Yanqi Zhou and Wei Li and Peter J. Liu},156 year = {2019},157 eprint = {1910.10683},158 archiveprefix = {arXiv},159 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:1910.10683},160 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}161}162163@misc{kaplan2020scaling,164 title = {Scaling {Laws} for {Neural} {Language} {Models}},165 author = {Jared Kaplan and Sam McCandlish and Tom Henighan and Tom B. Brown and Benjamin Chess and Rewon Child and Scott Gray and Alec Radford and Jeffrey Wu and Dario Amodei},166 year = {2020},167 eprint = {2001.08361},168 archiveprefix = {arXiv},169 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2001.08361},170 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}171}172173@misc{hoffmann2022chinchilla,174 title = {Training {Compute-Optimal} {Large} {Language} {Models}},175 author = {Jordan Hoffmann and Sebastian Borgeaud and Arthur Mensch and Elena Buchatskaya and Trevor Cai and Eliza Rutherford and Diego de Las Casas and Lisa Anne Hendricks and Johannes Welbl and Aidan Clark and others},176 year = {2022},177 eprint = {2203.15556},178 archiveprefix = {arXiv},179 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2203.15556},180 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}181}182183@misc{chowdhery2022palm,184 title = {{PaLM:} {Scaling} {Language} {Modeling} with {Pathways}},185 author = {Aakanksha Chowdhery and Sharan Narang and Jacob Devlin and Maarten Bosma and Gaurav Mishra and Adam Roberts and Paul Barham and Hyung Won Chung and Charles Sutton and Sebastian Gehrmann and others},186 year = {2022},187 eprint = {2204.02311},188 archiveprefix = {arXiv},189 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2204.02311},190 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}191}192193@misc{fedus2021switch,194 title = {Switch {Transformers:} {Scaling} to {Trillion} {Parameter} {Models} with {Simple} and {Efficient} {Sparsity}},195 author = {William Fedus and Barret Zoph and Noam Shazeer},196 year = {2021},197 eprint = {2101.03961},198 archiveprefix = {arXiv},199 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2101.03961},200 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}201}202203@misc{dosovitskiy2020vit,204 title = {An {Image} is {Worth} 16x16 {Words:} {Transformers} for {Image} {Recognition} at {Scale}},205 author = {Alexey Dosovitskiy and Lucas Beyer and Alexander Kolesnikov and Dirk Weissenborn and Xiaohua Zhai and Thomas Unterthiner and Mostafa Dehghani and Matthias Minderer and Georg Heigold and Sylvain Gelly and Jakob Uszkoreit and Neil Houlsby},206 year = {2020},207 eprint = {2010.11929},208 archiveprefix = {arXiv},209 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2010.11929},210 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}211}212213@misc{radford2021clip,214 title = {Learning {Transferable} {Visual} {Models} {From} {Natural} {Language} {Supervision}},215 author = {Alec Radford and Jong Wook Kim and Chris Hallacy and Aditya Ramesh and Gabriel Goh and Sandhini Agarwal and Girish Sastry and Amanda Askell and Pamela Mishkin and Jack Clark and Gretchen Krueger and Ilya Sutskever},216 year = {2021},217 eprint = {2103.00020},218 archiveprefix = {arXiv},219 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2103.00020},220 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}221}222223@misc{ramesh2021dalle,224 title = {{Zero-Shot} {Text-to-Image} {Generation}},225 author = {Aditya Ramesh and Mikhail Pavlov and Gabriel Goh and Scott Gray and Chelsea Voss and Alec Radford and Mark Chen and Ilya Sutskever},226 year = {2021},227 eprint = {2102.12092},228 archiveprefix = {arXiv},229 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2102.12092},230 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}231}232233@misc{ho2020ddpm,234 title = {Denoising {Diffusion} {Probabilistic} {Models}},235 author = {Jonathan Ho and Ajay Jain and Pieter Abbeel},236 year = {2020},237 eprint = {2006.11239},238 archiveprefix = {arXiv},239 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2006.11239},240 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}241}242243@misc{sohl2015diffusion,244 title = {Deep {Unsupervised} {Learning} using {Nonequilibrium} {Thermodynamics}},245 author = {Jascha Sohl-Dickstein and Eric A. Weiss and Niru Maheswaranathan and Surya Ganguli},246 year = {2015},247 eprint = {1503.03585},248 archiveprefix = {arXiv},249 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:1503.03585},250 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}251}252253@misc{song2020score,254 title = {{Score-Based} {Generative} {Modeling} through {Stochastic} {Differential} {Equations}},255 author = {Yang Song and Jascha Sohl-Dickstein and Diederik P. Kingma and Abhishek Kumar and Stefano Ermon and Ben Poole},256 year = {2020},257 eprint = {2011.13456},258 archiveprefix = {arXiv},259 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2011.13456},260 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}261}262263@misc{dhariwal2021beats,264 title = {Diffusion {Models} {Beat} {GANs} on {Image} {Synthesis}},265 author = {Prafulla Dhariwal and Alex Nichol},266 year = {2021},267 eprint = {2105.05233},268 archiveprefix = {arXiv},269 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2105.05233},270 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}271}272273@misc{bommasani2021foundation,274 title = {On the {Opportunities} and {Risks} of {Foundation} {Models}},275 author = {Rishi Bommasani and Drew A. Hudson and Ehsan Adeli and Russ Altman and Simran Arora and Sydney von Arx and Michael S. Bernstein and Jeannette Bohg and Antoine Bosselut and Emma Brunskill and others},276 year = {2021},277 eprint = {2108.07258},278 archiveprefix = {arXiv},279 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2108.07258},280 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}281}282283@misc{wei2022cot,284 title = {{Chain-of-Thought} {Prompting} {Elicits} {Reasoning} in {Large} {Language} {Models}},285 author = {Jason Wei and Xuezhi Wang and Dale Schuurmans and Maarten Bosma and Brian Ichter and Fei Xia and Ed Chi and Quoc Le and Denny Zhou},286 year = {2022},287 eprint = {2201.11903},288 archiveprefix = {arXiv},289 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2201.11903},290 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}291}292293@misc{wei2022emergent,294 title = {Emergent {Abilities} of {Large} {Language} {Models}},295 author = {Jason Wei and Yi Tay and Rishi Bommasani and Colin Raffel and Barret Zoph and Sebastian Borgeaud and Dani Yogatama and Maarten Bosma and Denny Zhou and Donald Metzler and others},296 year = {2022},297 eprint = {2206.07682},298 archiveprefix = {arXiv},299 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2206.07682},300 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}301}302303@misc{chen2021codex,304 title = {Evaluating {Large} {Language} {Models} {Trained} on {Code}},305 author = {Mark Chen and Jerry Tworek and Heewoo Jun and Qiming Yuan and Henrique Ponde de Oliveira Pinto and Jared Kaplan and Harri Edwards and Yuri Burda and Nicholas Joseph and Greg Brockman and others},306 year = {2021},307 eprint = {2107.03374},308 archiveprefix = {arXiv},309 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2107.03374},310 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}311}312313@misc{ouyang2022instructgpt,314 title = {Training language models to follow instructions with human feedback},315 author = {Long Ouyang and Jeff Wu and Xu Jiang and Diogo Almeida and Carroll L. Wainwright and Pamela Mishkin and Chong Zhang and Sandhini Agarwal and Katarina Slama and Alex Ray and others},316 year = {2022},317 eprint = {2203.02155},318 archiveprefix = {arXiv},319 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2203.02155},320 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}321}322323@misc{christiano2017rlhf,324 title = {Deep reinforcement learning from human preferences},325 author = {Paul Christiano and Jan Leike and Tom B. Brown and Miljan Martic and Shane Legg and Dario Amodei},326 year = {2017},327 eprint = {1706.03741},328 archiveprefix = {arXiv},329 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:1706.03741},330 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}331}332333@misc{stiennon2020summarize,334 title = {Learning to summarize from human feedback},335 author = {Nisan Stiennon and Long Ouyang and Jeff Wu and Daniel M. Ziegler and Ryan Lowe and Chelsea Voss and Alec Radford and Dario Amodei and Paul Christiano},336 year = {2020},337 eprint = {2009.01325},338 archiveprefix = {arXiv},339 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2009.01325},340 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}341}342343@misc{bai2022hh,344 title = {Training a {Helpful} and {Harmless} {Assistant} with {Reinforcement} {Learning} from {Human} {Feedback}},345 author = {Yuntao Bai and Andy Jones and Kamal Ndousse and Amanda Askell and Anna Chen and Nova DasSarma and Dawn Drain and Stanislav Fort and Deep Ganguli and Tom Henighan and others},346 year = {2022},347 eprint = {2204.05862},348 archiveprefix = {arXiv},349 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2204.05862},350 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}351}352353@misc{lewis2020rag,354 title = {{Retrieval-Augmented} {Generation} for {Knowledge-Intensive} {NLP} {Tasks}},355 author = {Patrick Lewis and Ethan Perez and Aleksandra Piktus and Fabio Petroni and Vladimir Karpukhin and Naman Goyal and Heinrich Küttler and Mike Lewis and Wen-tau Yih and Tim Rocktäschel and Sebastian Riedel and Douwe Kiela},356 year = {2020},357 eprint = {2005.11401},358 archiveprefix = {arXiv},359 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2005.11401},360 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}361}362363@misc{hendrycks2020mmlu,364 title = {Measuring {Massive} {Multitask} {Language} {Understanding}},365 author = {Dan Hendrycks and Collin Burns and Steven Basart and Andy Zou and Mantas Mazeika and Dawn Song and Jacob Steinhardt},366 year = {2020},367 eprint = {2009.03300},368 archiveprefix = {arXiv},369 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2009.03300},370 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}371}372373@misc{wang2019superglue,374 title = {{SuperGLUE:} {A} {Stickier} {Benchmark} for {General-Purpose} {Language} {Understanding} {Systems}},375 author = {Alex Wang and Yada Pruksachatkun and Nikita Nangia and Amanpreet Singh and Julian Michael and Felix Hill and Omer Levy and Samuel R. Bowman},376 year = {2019},377 eprint = {1905.00537},378 archiveprefix = {arXiv},379 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:1905.00537},380 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}381}382383@misc{srivastava2022bigbench,384 title = {Beyond the {Imitation} {Game:} {Quantifying} and extrapolating the capabilities of language models},385 author = {Aarohi Srivastava and Abhinav Rastogi and Abhishek Rao and Abu Awal Md Shoeb and Abubakar Abid and Adam Fisch and Adam R. Brown and Adam Santoro and Aditya Gupta and Adrià Garriga-Alonso and others},386 year = {2022},387 eprint = {2206.04615},388 archiveprefix = {arXiv},389 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2206.04615},390 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}391}392393@misc{patterson2021carbon,394 title = {Carbon {Emissions} and {Large} {Neural} {Network} {Training}},395 author = {David Patterson and Joseph Gonzalez and Quoc Le and Chen Liang and Lluis-Miquel Munguia and Daniel Rothchild and David So and Maud Texier and Jeff Dean},396 year = {2021},397 eprint = {2104.10350},398 archiveprefix = {arXiv},399 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2104.10350},400 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}401}402403@misc{shoeybi2019megatron,404 title = {{Megatron-LM:} {Training} {Multi-Billion} {Parameter} {Language} {Models} {Using} {Model} {Parallelism}},405 author = {Mohammad Shoeybi and Mostofa Patwary and Raul Puri and Patrick LeGresley and Jared Casper and Bryan Catanzaro},406 year = {2019},407 eprint = {1909.08053},408 archiveprefix = {arXiv},409 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:1909.08053},410 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}411}412413@misc{rajbhandari2019zero,414 title = {{ZeRO:} {Memory} {Optimizations} {Toward} {Training} {Trillion} {Parameter} {Models}},415 author = {Samyam Rajbhandari and Jeff Rasley and Olatunji Ruwase and Yuxiong He},416 year = {2019},417 eprint = {1910.02054},418 archiveprefix = {arXiv},419 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:1910.02054},420 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}421}422423@misc{dao2022flashattention,424 title = {{FlashAttention:} {Fast} and {Memory-Efficient} {Exact} {Attention} with {IO-Awareness}},425 author = {Tri Dao and Daniel Y. Fu and Stefano Ermon and Atri Rudra and Christopher Ré},426 year = {2022},427 eprint = {2205.14135},428 archiveprefix = {arXiv},429 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2205.14135},430 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}431}432433@misc{rae2021gopher,434 title = {Scaling {Language} {Models:} {Methods,} {Analysis} \& {Insights} from {Training} {Gopher}},435 author = {Jack W. Rae and Sebastian Borgeaud and Trevor Cai and Katie Millican and Jordan Hoffmann and Francis Song and John Aslanides and Sarah Henderson and Roman Ring and Susannah Young and others},436 year = {2021},437 eprint = {2112.11446},438 archiveprefix = {arXiv},439 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2112.11446},440 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}441}442443@misc{bigscience2022bloom,444 title = {{BLOOM:} {A} {176B-Parameter} {Open-Access} {Multilingual} {Language} {Model}},445 author = {{BigScience Workshop}},446 year = {2022},447 eprint = {2211.05100},448 archiveprefix = {arXiv},449 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2211.05100},450 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}451}452453@misc{zhang2022opt,454 title = {{OPT:} {Open} {Pre-trained} {Transformer} {Language} {Models}},455 author = {Susan Zhang and Stephen Roller and Naman Goyal and Mikel Artetxe and Moya Chen and Shuohui Chen and Christopher Dewan and Mona Diab and Xian Li and Xi Victoria Lin and others},456 year = {2022},457 eprint = {2205.01068},458 archiveprefix = {arXiv},459 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2205.01068},460 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}461}462463@misc{liu2019roberta,464 title = {{RoBERTa:} {A} {Robustly} {Optimized} {BERT} {Pretraining} {Approach}},465 author = {Yinhan Liu and Myle Ott and Naman Goyal and Jingfei Du and Mandar Joshi and Danqi Chen and Omer Levy and Mike Lewis and Luke Zettlemoyer and Veselin Stoyanov},466 year = {2019},467 eprint = {1907.11692},468 archiveprefix = {arXiv},469 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:1907.11692},470 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}471}472473@misc{chen2020simclr,474 title = {{A} {Simple} {Framework} for {Contrastive} {Learning} of {Visual} {Representations}},475 author = {Ting Chen and Simon Kornblith and Mohammad Norouzi and Geoffrey Hinton},476 year = {2020},477 eprint = {2002.05709},478 archiveprefix = {arXiv},479 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2002.05709},480 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}481}482483@misc{baevski2020wav2vec,484 title = {wav2vec 2.0: {A} {Framework} for {Self-Supervised} {Learning} of {Speech} {Representations}},485 author = {Alexei Baevski and Henry Zhou and Abdelrahman Mohamed and Michael Auli},486 year = {2020},487 eprint = {2006.11477},488 archiveprefix = {arXiv},489 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2006.11477},490 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}491}492493@misc{alayrac2022flamingo,494 title = {Flamingo: a {Visual} {Language} {Model} for {Few-Shot} {Learning}},495 author = {Jean-Baptiste Alayrac and Jeff Donahue and Pauline Luc and Antoine Miech and Iain Barr and Yana Hasson and Karel Lenc and Arthur Mensch and Katie Millican and Malcolm Reynolds and others},496 year = {2022},497 eprint = {2204.14198},498 archiveprefix = {arXiv},499 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2204.14198},500 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}501}502503@misc{reed2022gato,504 title = {{A} {Generalist} {Agent}},505 author = {Scott Reed and Konrad Zolna and Emilio Parisotto and Sergio Gomez Colmenarejo and Alexander Novikov and Gabriel Barth-Maron and Mai Gimenez and Yury Sulsky and Jackie Kay and Jost Tobias Springenberg and others},506 year = {2022},507 eprint = {2205.06175},508 archiveprefix = {arXiv},509 howpublished = {arXiv preprint arXiv:2205.06175},510 note = {verified: arxiv API 2026-11-03}511}512513@misc{saharia2022imagen,514 title = {Photorealistic {Text-to-Image} {Diffusion} {Models} with {Deep} {Language} {Understanding}},515 author = {Chitwan Saharia and William Chan and Saurabh Saxena and Lala Li and Jay Whang and Emily Denton and Seyed Kamyar Seyed Ghasemipour and Burcu Karagol Ayan and S. 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